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A
Historic Review of the Events and Persons Associated with the
Different Trans-Isthmian Crossings and Routes in Panama
By
Susan Harp, June
1, 2001
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When satellites took the first photographs of tiny earth from space, the Isthmus of Panama showed up as a slender thread connecting the North and South American continents. Unlike Michelangelo’s almost-but-not-quite touch between God and Adam in the heavens of the Sistine Chapel, Panama’s reach between the two continents was solid and complete for three million years – until humans rendered it in two with the construction of the Panama Canal. They had dreamed about an all-water route between the great seas for 400 years. The land link between the continents began as a slow, gradual rise from the ocean bottom 20 million years ago. When it finally formed a solid link between the continents 17 million years later, it had emerged as an influential focal point in world geography and natural history. The rise of the isthmus changed the ecology of the earth’s oceans, continents and climate. The link also became an important player in human history. By virtue of Panama’s unique geography, a path across the link became key to transcontinental travel and commerce. First the Las Cruces Trail, then the Panama Railroad and the Panama Canal provided the path and, in the process, shaped five centuries of local, regional, national and international history. This article focuses on the events and the players that created these unique pathways, from Fort San Lorenzo and Portobelo on the Atlantic coast to Panama City on the Pacific shore. We begin our story three million years ago in geological pre-history. Although today Panama is best known for the Panama Canal, the waterway that links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans for maritime trade, its first important link was not as a path between two oceans. It was as a path between two continents. When the Isthmus of Panama rose from one great ocean three million years ago, it connected the North and South American landmasses and opened the way for a north/south migration of plants and animals. Giant anteaters and sloth and 12-foot-tall predatory birds began moving northward. Bears, early horses, deer, weasels, dogs, cats and mice ventured south across the new link. The isthmus also blocked a once-immense ocean. The west-moving equatorial current in the newly formed Atlantic was forced to turn north, and it eventually developed into the Gulf Stream. The northward movement of that warm water triggered rain in northern latitudes and the water froze and formed new glaciations and ice ages in the far north; but the Gulf Stream also warmed western Europe. The ocean on the Pacific side grew cooler, its upwelling currents carrying rich nutrients and developing abundant fishing grounds. The Atlantic side grew warmer and nutrient poor; coral reefs grew in the shallow Caribbean Sea. Marine species that had been separated turned in different evolutionary directions. Land link between two continentsEons later, humans arrived from the north. East Asian peoples crossed the Siberian Peninsula land bridge into what is now Alaska and made their way south across the North American Continent toward warmer climates. Bands of hunters and gatherers arrived in Panama at least 12,000 years ago. A myriad of separate culture groups developed all over the isthmus, from the lowland rainforest at the easternmost point to the highlands at the western end. Some estimates put Panama’s indigenous population at the time of European contact at 2 million, just slightly less than Panama’s modern-day population of 2.8 million in the year 2000. Before the time of European contact (1500), hierarchical chiefdoms with agriculture and highly developed art forms had developed in Panama’s western sector. Their artisan skills in the highly complex craft of making solid gold figurines, called huacas, created a demand for Panamanian art, and the huaca trade reached as far north as the Mayan culture in Mexico and south into Colombia. Time of the ConquistadorsBut Panama’s fame for gold eventually brought downfall for its native residents, as was true for all New World people who revealed golden treasures to the Spanish Conquistadors who arrived on their shores in the 1500s. Gold drove Spaniards mad with desire; it drove them right into the heart of Panama and up and down the length and breadth of Latin America. Beginning with their arrival, Panama was transformed into an important link between the two oceans. The new discovery immediately attracted merchants and middlemen, experts in extracting their share of the riches that passed through on their way to other destinations. The importance of gold continued to dominate the course of Panama’s history for three centuries of Spanish rule. Gold RushAfter a brief lull in activity in Panama, the discovery of gold nuggets in California in 1848 triggered a rush of people seeking the fastest route from the east coast of the United States to San Francisco. Because there was no railroad transportation built across the United States at that time, many traveled by sea on a route that required a land-trek across Panama. The Gold Rush brought thousands of prospectors to Panama, and the sudden activity brought the Las Cruces Trail and the new Panama Railroad into the limelight again. Golden commerceActivities in the 20th century created a new kind of gold for Panama: an all-water passage between two oceans. In the 1500s, explorers had confirmed there was no all-water westward passage to the Orient; in the 1900s, industrialists built their own. The Panama Canal gave the isthmus renewed importance for maritime commerce and opportunities for the merchants and middlemen to take advantage of its return to a prominent role in world commerce. The path acrossThroughout the past five centuries, Panama’s mighty Chagres River played an important role in the system of trails leading across the isthmus. From the Caribbean Sea, the mighty river provided a water route halfway across, where the Las Cruces Trail continued on land to Panama City. In the twentieth century it would provide water for the Panama Canal. In the sixteenth century, the Spanish recognizing the strategic importance of the river and built the Castle of San Lorenzo to guard its entrance. For almost 300 years the fort remained a symbol of Spanish control over access to Latin America, and the history of its rise and fall provides a barometer for the general state of Spanish dominance in the region. The discovery of Panama in 1500 may have changed the significance of the narrow isthmus, but not its importance. Its geographical heritage meant that the monarchy that controlled a path across Panama could dominate the New World. Rodrigo de BastidesThe Spaniard Rodrigo de Bastides was the first European to visit the coast of Panama. He arrived in 1500 by sailing up the Atlantic coast of South America to what is now called the Darien, which even today forms a formidable barrier between Panama and Colombia. On board his ship were two men who would later make history in their own right, the ship’s chandler, Amerigo Vespucci (from whom the word “America” evolved), and an adventurer named Vasco Núñez de Balboa (who would become the first European to see the Pacific Ocean). However, the group set sail for Hispaniola, (the island that today hosts Haiti and the Dominican Republic) before they reached the Chagres River and the narrow portion of the isthmus. Christopher ColombusIn October 1502, Christopher Columbus (Cristobal Colón) and his men were the first Europeans to see the Chagres River during Columbus’s fourth and last voyage to the New World. Columbus was still searching for an ocean passage to the Orient, working his way south in four caravels along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica toward the coordinates that Bastides had mapped. After stopping in Bocas del Toro near the border between what is now Panama and Costa Rica, he proceeded east until reaching a great river. Seeing a large number of crocodiles on its banks, Columbus named the waterway River of Crocodiles. Later it became known as the Chagres. The Chagres RiverHearing native accounts of a hill where he could look out to another sea, Columbus started up the Chagres in longboats, but turned back after realizing the journey would take him too far from the safety of his ships. He explored what is now called Limón Bay, thinking it was perhaps a strait leading to the Indian Ocean. He left disappointed, never to know that the bay would someday become the northern entrance to the Panama Canal. Charting PortobeloEventually, the ships arrived at an excellent harbor where natives maintained productive gardens along the banks of a river there. Columbus and his men stayed a week in this place to shelter from a storm, and named it Porto Bello (Beautiful Port, now called Portobelo). Traveling farther east, they reached the same coordinates charted by Bastides and realized there was to be no Westward Passage for their ships. Disappointed, they named the point of land near the coordinates “Nombre de Dios” (Name of God). Six later, the place would have the distinction of becoming one of the two earliest permanent Spanish settlements on the mainland. Exploring ManzanilloAfter fighting a storm for nine days, Columbus re-entered Limón Bay and stopped at Manzanillo Island. He looked for a site to establish a settlement on Tierra Firme in order to solidify his legal claim on the land. (By order of the Crown, he was entitled to the viceroyalty of all lands that he charted as well as a tenth of all the revenue produced by them.) But Manzanillo Island was too low lying and infested with insects and crocodiles. Columbus rejected it. Ironically, 400 years later the island would become the site for two cities, aptly named Cristobal and Colon, that formed the Caribbean terminus for the first trans-continental railroad in the Americas and, subsequently, for the Panama Canal. But Columbus sought a healthier site and made his way westward along the Caribbean coast toward Bocas del Toro. Settling BelénReaching a grand river, they chose a settlement site and christened the site. The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Americas mainland endured only four months, for hostile Indians and the lack of food were reason enough for the men to abandon the settlement and return to Hispaniola. Change of commandNew opportunitiesColumbus died in 1506, soon after leaving Panama. His son Diego inherited claims to vast amounts of newly discovered lands in the New World, claims that hindered King Ferdinand’s desire to control them. In a clever maneuver to take the mainland away from Diego’s jurisdiction, the king awarded Diego the viceroyalty of Hispaniola in 1508 in exchange for his relinquishing control over the mainland. The king divided the newly discovered continent in half, with the dividing line going right through Panama’s Darien province at the Gulf of Urubá. He appointed Alonso De Ojeda ruler of everything south of the line and Diego de Nicuesa master of everything north. Included in their jurisdiction were the lands and all native inhabitants, who instantly had the status of “slave” bestowed upon them. Spain focuses on PanamaJust ten years after proving the earth was round and discovering the New World, Spain had claimed the entire – but only partially mapped – American Continent and placed it under the jurisdiction of just two men. Europeans had not even discovered the Pacific Ocean at this time. By some fluke of luck, Spain chose to establish the first New World mainland settlements in Panama – ostensibly for the abundance of gold they believed existed there. Their luck would bring them control over Panama’s geographic advantage: of the entire continent, Panama was the narrowest strip of land separating the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. But by another, more sinister fluke of luck, the location was also one of the most disease ridden. First conquest settlementsDiego de Nicuesa was named lord of everything north of the dividing line to include all of Central and North America (still undiscovered). Nicuesa chose Portobelo as the first settlement site, but hostile Indians forced his group to flee. They headed east to their second choice, Nombre de Dios. Alonso de Ojeda sent an envoy, Martín Fernández de Enciso, with a group to settle Santa María de la Antigua, far down the Darien coast toward what is now Colombia. Accompanying Enciso was the young Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who had seen this coast before with Bastides. Balboa had stowed away on one of Enciso’s ships in order to escape his debtors on Hispaniola. He joined the settlers at Antigua. Vasco Nuñez de BalboaIn two years, Balboa emerged as the leader of the new settlement. He rallied the group to defend themselves against Indian attacks and succeeded in establishing friendly relations with some of the neighboring groups. Enciso was jealous of Balboa’s natural leadership skills and spread malicious gossip about Balboa during a trip to Spain. Understanding what Enciso was up to but left at a disadvantage in Antigua, Balboa reacted by sending gold that he had collected from the natives to Diego Colon on Hispaniola. Colon reacted with goodwill, and approval of Balboa as a leader. Balboa also wisely dispatched a ship carrying the king’s royal share of gold directly to Spain in order to improve his reputation. As a leader, Balboa’s policy was to deal fairly but firmly with the Indians. The history of Latin America might have been different if he had remained in charge, for these were the formative years before the discoveries of Central and South America. Balboa established good relations with the Indians, but also collected all the gold he could find. When the starving and feverish men at Ojeda’s settlement abandoned Nombre de Dios, Balboa helped them establish a new settlement at nearby Acla. Search for a new oceanAfter hearing many tales of a great ocean on the other side of the mountains from the Indians, Balboa finally embarked on his historic expedition across the isthmus on September 1, 1513. On September 24th, his Indian guides led the group to a mountain lookout along the Continental Divide. Balboa walked alone to the summit and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. Five days later, the expedition reached the Pacific shore. Wading into the salt water, Balboa claimed all the seas and lands, coasts, ports and islands there and to the west in the name of King Ferdinand. Unknowingly, he had just claimed most of the world for Spain, including all of the Americas and Asia, For four months Balboa explored the new coast. The expedition returned to Antigua on January 19, 1514, with a treasure of pearls from the coast and a respectable sum of gold. Elated, Balboa immediately dispatched samples of the treasures to King Ferdinand with the great news of the Pacific Ocean. Unlucky timingHowever, Balboa was not destined to reap the benefits he had worked so hard to earn. Burning to find a Westward Passage, King Ferdinand had appointed Pedro Arias de Avila (more commonly known as Pedrarias) the new governor of the isthmus and provided him with 1,500 men to continue the search. Balboa’s ship arrived in Spain just a few days after Pedrarias set sail. It was too late for Ferdinand to cancel the expedition, and the bloody future of Latin America began with Pedrarias’s arrival at Acla. Pedro Arias de AvilaPedrarias the manipulatorPedrarias soon realized the residents had chosen Balboa as their leader by popular vote. Seeking to gain Balboa’s allegiance, Pedrarias offered his eldest daughter (then living in Spain) in marriage. Balboa accepted. The future father-in-law kept Balboa busy by sending him across the isthmus to build ships and explore the new coast. Meanwhile, word arrived from King Ferdinand rewarding Balboa with the titles of Admiral of the South Sea for Life and Governor of the Pacific Shores of Castilla del Oro (“Castle of Gold,” the Spanish name for the isthmus at that time). TreacheryFearing that these appointments were encouraging Balboa to be too powerful and independent, Pedrarias made trumped-up accusations of treason against Balboa and sent Francisco Pizarro (the future conquerer of Peru) to arrest Balboa and his supporters. Balboa, trusting in his personal view of a just world, accepted his arrest with the conviction that a face-to-face conversation with Pedrarias would clear up any misunderstanding. But the entire group, including Balboa, was found guilty. All were beheaded on January 17, 1517. First trail across the isthmusHistory almost took a different turn at this point, with King Ferdinand’s death occurring shortly before Balboa’s demise. Ferdinand’s young son, Charles I of Spain, (also called Carlos V) replaced Pedrarias with a new governor, Lope de Sosa. Scrambling to strengthen his own seat of power before Sosa arrived to kick him out, Pedrarias sent a soldier named Gaspar de Espinosa to build a royal road, the Camino Real, across the isthmus. Espinosa took 4,000 Indian slaves and, starting from Nombre de Dios, hauled river cobbles to pave the road. The trail intersected with a trail coming from Portobelo, continued southwest along the eastern bank of the Pequeñi River, crossed the Chagres at Venta de Cruces, and turned south to climb over the Continental Divide. It descended onto the Pacific shore to a fishing village called “Panama” by the local fishermen. Pedrarias’s legacyDespite his cruel nature, Pedrarias seemed to be blessed with good fortune. His replacement, Governor Lope de Sosa died on the trip to Panama. Pedrarias would remain governor for twelve more years. With the elimination of Balboa’s fair-minded but firm conquest methods, Pedrarias was free to proliferate his brutal ways of treachery and torture of the Indians. These activities set the stage for the entire Spanish conquest of Latin America, including Peru and Mexico. Memoirs written by the historian Oviedo y Valdes, who traveled the New World during that time, estimated that Pedrarias caused the death or enslavement of some two million people. (Howarth, 53) The Spanish spent the decade (1520-1530) exploring the Pacific coast. Many conquistadors lived in Panama before leading expeditions to their destiny and fame. Balboa had named the northern area’s provincial department “Chagre,” after a district in Spain. The name was soon applied to the River of Crocodiles as well, becoming the River “Chagres.” By August 1519, a road at least three feet wide stretched from Nombre de Dios and Portobelo to the Pacific coast. On August 15, 1519, Pedrarias rode his horse across the isthmus on the new road and officially established Panama City. He named the loyal Gaspar de Espinosa governor of Panama City and returned to the Atlantic coast. These acts marked the beginning of European commerce across the isthmus. Some history books (Anderson, 213) claim it was fortunate coincidence that the first permanent settlements on the isthmus (Portobelo and Panama City) were located at the narrowest part and in an almost directly north-south path crossing one of the easiest Continental Divide passes. But the first discoverers of the American Continent, migrant hunters and gatherers from the Siberian Peninsula, had occupied these lands for at least 15,000 years before the Europeans’ arrival. Certainly the Indians had ample time to identify the best and shortest trails in their areas. They graciously shared this information with the Spanish as they led them on their expeditions. What is absolutely amazing is that the early Spanish explorers, without any idea of how huge the New World land mass actually was, established the first mainland settlements on the very thread that connected North and South America. Santa María la Antigua, Nombre de Dios, Acla and Portobelo – the first four settlements were all located on what would later become the Republic of Panama. They were also located on one of the rainiest and most disease-ridden coasts. Early explorersGil González DavilaUnder Pedrarias, Gil González Davila, the treasurer of Hispaniola, mounted an expedition north along the Pacific shore as far as Lake Nicaragua. Warned that Pedrarias was plotting to kill him and claim Nicaragua for himself, Davila quietly left for Hispaniola instead of returning to Panama. Pedrarias went on to become governor of Nicaragua in 1529. Ponce de Leon and Hernan de SotoPonce de Leon and Hernan de Soto had a lucrative contract to deliver slaves to the isthmus. Later, de Leon later was the first Spaniard to explore Florida, and de Soto explored the Mississippi River. Francisco PizarroFrancisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, mounted three expeditions from Panama. On November 14, 1524, Pizarro set sail in one of the boats that Balboa had built to explore the southern Pacific coast. Thus Pizarro instead of Balboa, discovered the Incan Empire. On his third voyage in 1531, Pizarro succeeded in conquering the Incas and gaining access to Peru’s rich gold and silver mines. The Spanish immediately began stripping Peru of all its gold and silver. The vast silver mines of Peru would provide an enormous amount of treasure for the next 100 years. Panama was transformed into a conduit for all goods traveling between Spain and Peru, and the Camino Real trail system was the only way to cross the isthmus. The gold route to Spain began in Lima, with ships carrying the treasures to Panama City. Then the precious metal crossed by mule on Pedrarias’s road and was registered and cleared in Portobelo for the trip to Spain. Spain rises, Panama followsThis enormous influx of wealth into Spain helped finance the ongoing Spanish Inquisition, the Spanish Armada and King Charles’s domination of Europe (until his abdication in 1556). It also created an extremely wealthy merchant and bureaucrat class in Panama. Silks, pearls and spices began arriving on Spanish ships returning from exploring the western Pacific. Panama established itself as the middleman for all maritime trade going to and from the Pacific, supported by the king’s monopoly on all ships landing in Panama. Its geographical position, development of the Camino Real and Spain’s domination of the seas gave Panama a monopoly on east-west trade. Panama’s special status also made it a target for thieves, pirates and unscrupulous businessmen. Las Cruces TrailAlong the Camino Real, way stations sprang up for the weary traveler. The most important one was at Venta de Cruces, where the trail from Panama City crossed the mighty Chagres River. But during the wet season, from April to December, the road was muddy and slow. A new route that included travel along the Chagres River was established. This route allowed boats to enter the Chagres from the Caribbean and follow it almost halfway across the Isthmus to a landing at Las Cruces, where goods could continue by mule on the road to Panama City. Most merchandise followed this combined sea-land route, but precious metal was seldom sent by river because the short coastal leg from the Chagres to Portobelo was too exposed to pirate attacks. Trade fairs and Spanish monopolyBecause of the danger of piracy, all the gold, silver, pearls and jewels from Peru, Bolivia and the Pacific were held in the king’s treasury house in Panama City or at either Las Cruces or Venta de Cruces until January, when drier weather allowed easier mule-train passage. The expedition began after confirmation that the Spanish caravels had arrived in Cartagena (Colombia) and would soon appear in Portobelo. The caravels unloaded manufactured goods, such as furniture and European foods, and took on the treasures headed for Spain. Much to the frustration of the Dutch and English sea traders, Spain enforced a strict monopoly on ships landing in Portobelo. The Spanish monarchy sent only its own ships and collected high taxes on every imported item sold in the streets of Portobelo. Since the trade fair was held only once a year, the wealthy citizens of Panama City were desperate and paid high prices for the European goods they missed. But they also realized they only had to be in Portobelo for the fair. They abandoned the fever-ridden cities of Portobelo and Nombre de Dios for Panama City, returned once a year for the trade fair. Spanish economyThe Spanish kings welcomed the arrival of new riches from the New World, but there was so much gold and silver that it actually disrupted the European economy and devalued the price of gold. It is estimated that 200,000 tons of silver crossed the isthmus between 1545 and 1600. Free spending and devaluation caused the Spanish monarchy to go bankrupt three times during this time period. (Howarth, 55) The Cimarrones, 1560By the 1560’s Panama had a large merchant population supported by slave labor. All native peoples of the New World were considered the property of their Spanish conquerors. European diseases – such as smallpox – that New World peoples had never seen and had no natural resistance to, ravaged their populations. The Spanish began importing African slaves, who proved to have natural resistance to malaria and other diseases. The Africans took every opportunity to escape, however, and small groups soon banded together in hidden jungle settlements. They took their revenge on the Europeans by hiding along the Camino de Cruces trail system (the Camino Real and the Las Cruces Trail) and attacking unfortunate travelers and mule trains. They also allied with pirates who were hungry for a share of the treasure. Sir Francis Drake, 1572-1573Spain’s good fortune fostered piracy, some of it sanctioned by England’s royal court. In 1572 a young rogue pirate named Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, England, with his two brothers and only 70 crew. They landed along the Darien coast on July 12 that same year. They attacked and overcame Nombre de Dios, finding huge piles of silver bars stacked 12 feet high in storage. But Drake had been wounded and his men insisted on leaving the silver and retreating in order to save their leader. (Anderson, 346; Minter, 128; Howarth, 65) Joining forces – the gentleman pirateWhile recovering, Drake befriended the Cimarrones, who informed him that no Spanish gold would cross the isthmus until the rains abated in January. Drake decided to wait and attack the mule trains. To pass the time, the pirates manned two small ships and began harassing Spanish ships sailing between Cartagena (Colombia) and Panama. During this time, Drake gained the reputation of a “gentleman” pirate because he only stole supplies and cargo and never sank a ship or executed its crew. As a result, his victims surrendered almost as soon as Drake’s ships overtook them instead of risking being wounded or killed in a fight. AmbushDrake’s skill as an excellent sailor and navigator gave him much success at sea, but his skills for land-based attacks were plagued by bad luck, despite all of his careful planning. As January approached, the Cimarrones led Drake and his crew across the isthmus by blazing their own trail. They kept the group from starving by hunting wild game and collecting fruit. They marched to within sight of Panama City, where the pirates were awestruck upon seeing the legendary city and the Pacific Ocean. They sent a spy into the city and soon discovered that the treasurer of Lima (Peru), was in town and planned to cross the isthmus with a mule train carrying his personal fortune that very night. The group retreated to Venta de Cruces to plan their ambush. There they hid along the trail, waiting until they heard the tinkling bells of the mule train approaching. Unfortunately, some of the corsairs passed the waiting time by drinking liquor. As fate would have it, a lone rider passed the group first, riding toward Panama City. Also as fate would have it, one inebriated pirate raised his head to be the first to spy the treasure. The rider spotted him but rode on and was able to warn the treasurer and his entourage, who hurriedly turned back toward Panama City. However, a mule train carrying their food continued on toward the pirates. The pirates gleefully seized the group, but were crestfallen to discover absolutely no treasure. The Cimarrones were more than glad to take the food, as for them it was a greater treasure than gold. Second attemptWith only 31 men left alive, Drake returned to the Atlantic coast, where he met and allied with a French pirate named Captain Tetu and 19 of his men. They planned another attack on the trail, this time against three mule trains laden with silver and gold. With the Cimarrones’s help, they captured about 200 mules carrying almost 30 tons of silver and a quantity of gold near Nombre de Dios. There was no way to carry it all, so they began burying the silver. But the delay gave time for an armed group from Nombre de Dios to arrive and send them running. Captain Tetu lost his life during the retreat. A captured Frenchman revealed the buried silver’s hiding place, and the Spanish set about digging it up. Meanwhile, the unlucky Drake retreated to the coast, only to find that his ships had disappeared. Undaunted, he and three others constructed a log raft and, using biscuit sacks for a sail, set out to find the boats. Through sheer tenacity, they finally located them in another anchorage. Success at lastDisappointed in the loss of men and with very little booty to show for their efforts, some of Drake’s crew risked capture by returning to the ambush site and digging up a small amount of overlooked silver and gold. They ended up with a reported 130,000 pesos, an immense sum of treasure that they divided 50-50 with the remaining French corsairs and at last set out for their homeport in Plymouth, England. Twenty years later - Drake’s endDrake went on to distinguish himself by being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (in the ship, the Golden Hind) and then by participating in the defeat the Spanish Armada. He became an admiral and was knighted, but seemingly that was not enough. Panama City’s legendary riches still called to him. Drake was over 50 years old in 1595 when he set sail once more for Panama with an immense army – 27 ships and 2,500 men – to fulfill his dream. But Drake had lost his fire, and attacks on both Nombre de Dios and along the Camino de Cruces failed. Disappointed at their defeat, his ships had just set sail for Nicaragua when Drake fell ill with fever. When his conditioned worsened, they returned to the harbor at Portobelo, where Drake died. Legend has it that he was buried at sea just outside the bay. Drake’s legacy – San Lorenzo and San FelipeHowever, as a result of Drake’s attacks, in 1597 King Philip II ordered the installations at Nombre de Dios moved to Portobelo, the building of a fort at Portobelo and reinforcement of fortifications at the mouth of the Chagres River. The results were the San Felipe Castle in Portobelo and Castle San Lorenzo at Chagres.
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